High international gold prices have further increased the economic incentives driving the expansion of these activities. According to the Monitoring of the Andean Amazon Project (MAAP), the Amazon region lost more than 736,000 hectares of primary forest in 2025, with a significant proportion of mining-affected areas located within protected areas and Indigenous territories. Against this backdrop, the Office of the Special Rapporteur on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights (REDESCA) of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) is preparing a regional report examining the relationship between illegal gold mining, human rights violations, territories and governance across countries in the Amazon and the Guiana Shield.

From Alerts to Regional Analysis

The decision to prepare this report builds on several years of monitoring and documentation by the Inter-American Commission and its Office of the Special Rapporteur in response to growing concern over this issue across the region. REDESCA identified it as a priority area in its 2024–2026 Work Plan. In 2019, in its report on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the Pan-Amazon Region, the IACHR warned of exposure to high levels of mercury and its impacts on water, biodiversity, and health. In 2021, Resolution 3/21 on the Climate Emergency identified environmental degradation as one of the major threats to human rights in the region.

In April 2024, during an in loco visit to Colombia, the Commission and its Office of the Special Rapporteur identified illegal mining as a driver of water pollution, forced displacement and the financing of criminal organisations. In October of that year, the IACHR and REDESCA raised concerns about the situation of the Yanomami people in the Orinoco Mining Arc, where communities faced displacement, mercury contamination, and the presence of armed groups. In March 2025, REDESCA called for stronger international cooperation, improved gold traceability and tighter controls on the trade in inputs such as mercury. In March 2026, it issued a further alert on the impacts of illegal mining on the human right to water. The issue has also been consistently documented in the Office of the Special Rapporteur’s annual reports on countries across the region.

REDESCA pays particular attention to the differentiated impacts on Indigenous Peoples, Afro-descendant and tribal communities, women, children and adolescents, and human rights and environmental defenders.

REDESCA pays particular attention to the differentiated impacts on Indigenous Peoples, Afro-descendant and tribal communities, women, children and adolescents.

The objective of the report is to analyse, from a human rights perspective and, in particular, from the perspective of economic, social, cultural and environmental rights, the impacts of illegal gold mining, as well as the territorial, cross-border and governance dynamics associated with its expansion. REDESCA pays particular attention to the differentiated impacts on Indigenous Peoples (including those in voluntary isolation and initial contact), Afro-descendant and tribal communities, women, children and adolescents, and human rights and environmental defenders.

Without prejudging the conclusions of the report, which is currently under preparation, the information gathered to date highlights several dimensions of particular relevance to the analysis: mercury contamination and other impacts on health and food; deforestation and ecosystem degradation; loss of territorial control; the expansion of illicit economies and the presence of armed actors; weaknesses in institutional responses; and challenges in ensuring traceability and due diligence throughout the gold supply chain.

A Process Developed through Dialogue and Consultation

The development process of the report has drawn on a range of mechanisms for dialogue, consultation and information gathering. As part of this process, the IACHR convened a regional hearing on its own initiative during its 195th Period of Sessions, held in Guatemala City, with the participation of civil society organisations and representatives of communities and Indigenous Peoples. REDESCA subsequently sent requests for information to States and issued a call for contributions from organisations, affected communities and experts.

From 15 to 19 June 2026, REDESCA conducted a working visit to Brazil, holding meetings with authorities and civil society organisations in Brasília and Boa Vista, Roraima. During the visit, it participated in the 8th General Assembly of the Hutukara Yanomami Association, alongside Indigenous leaders. In July, the Office of the Special Rapporteur held a hybrid consultation with experts in Bogotá and participated in the Regional Meeting on Mining, Territorial Governance and Indigenous Rights in the Amazon, held in Tena, Ecuador. The meeting was organised by PAKKIRU, FOIN Ecuador and the Sacha Supay Quichua Institute of Biotechnology, with the support of IWGIA. There, REDESCA engaged in dialogue with Indigenous leaders from Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.

These spaces have made it possible to incorporate not only information on the impacts of illegal mining, but also the experiences, knowledge and responses of Indigenous Peoples themselves. Across the region, Indigenous communities, organisations and authorities have developed territorial monitoring and protection mechanisms, mapping and environmental documentation tools, early warning systems and strategies for engaging with public authorities. Incorporating this knowledge and experience is essential to understanding the territorial dynamics of illegal mining and to developing responses that recognise Indigenous Peoples’ autonomy, ensure their effective participation and reflect the priorities they themselves have identified.

Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights, Territory and the Continuity of Community Life

The impacts of illegal gold mining extend beyond pollution and the loss of forest cover. In Indigenous territories, deforestation, changes to watercourses and ecosystem degradation can affect the territorial relationships that sustain food, health, livelihoods, cultural and spiritual practices and, more broadly, the conditions necessary for the continuity of community life. From an Inter-American human rights perspective, the protection of forests is therefore closely linked to the protection of territories, economic, social, cultural and environmental rights, cultural identity and the self-determination of Indigenous Peoples.

Mercury contamination is one of the primary concerns emerging from the information gathered. Once released into the environment, mercury can be converted into methylmercury and accumulate in fish and other aquatic organisms, thereby entering the food chain of people living in the Amazon. The contamination of rivers can therefore also undermine the right to food by affecting the diets of many Indigenous and riverine communities and putting traditional food practices at risk.

Across territories in Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela and other countries, evidence points to links between the expansion of mining, forest loss, the degradation of water sources and increased pressure on protected areas and Indigenous territories.

Across territories in Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela and other countries, evidence points to links between the expansion of mining, forest loss and the degradation of water.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has warned of the serious neurological effects associated with exposure to methylmercury and the particularly high risks faced by children and pregnant women. Studies cited in the information reviewed by REDESCA have found elevated mercury levels in Indigenous communities in Brazil and Peru. Other health impacts add to these concerns: the transformation of territories associated with mining can create conditions conducive to the proliferation of disease vectors, including those responsible for the transmission of malaria.

Deforestation and habitat fragmentation constitute another key dimension of the challenges facing the Amazon. Across river basins and territories in Peru, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela and other countries, evidence points to links between the expansion of mining, forest loss, the degradation of water sources and increased pressure on protected areas and Indigenous territories. These dynamics are further exacerbated when they converge with other illicit economies and actors competing for territorial control.

Illegal Mining, Illicit Economies and Territorial Governance

Illegal gold mining does not operate in isolation. Across the Amazon, it is intertwined with drug trafficking networks, illegal logging, smuggling, the illegal trafficking of mining products, and other illicit economies. This convergence can lead to territorial control by armed groups, threats against Indigenous communities and authorities, restrictions on freedom of movement, and the weakening of State capacities for prevention, monitoring, enforcement and protection.

Gold has characteristics that facilitate its integration into ostensibly legal supply chains: it has a high value-to-weight ratio, can be melted down and mixed with gold from legal sources, and can be traded using irregular documentation or through jurisdictions with inadequate controls. Responses therefore cannot be limited to the places where extraction occurs. They require effective traceability mechanisms, cross-border cooperation and coordination among environmental, customs, financial and judicial authorities, as well as clear responsibilities for businesses involved throughout the gold supply chain.

The risks are particularly severe for Indigenous Peoples in voluntary isolation and initial contact, as any external interference can have irreversible consequences. Women, children and adolescents, Afro-descendant and tribal communities, and human rights and environmental defenders are also affected in distinct ways. In adverse contexts, these groups and individuals may face threats, harassment and violence.

A Report Designed as a Tool

The challenge does not end with documenting the expansion of illegal mining or identifying its impacts. The central question is how to translate human rights standards into responses that can effectively protect territories, prevent further harm and strengthen the capacity of Indigenous Peoples to participate in decisions that affect their ways of life.

The regional report being developed by REDESCA seeks to contribute to this objective by systematising relevant standards and developing recommendations for States, businesses and other relevant actors. At the same time, the process seeks to incorporate the experiences, knowledge and perspectives of Indigenous Peoples and affected communities, not merely as sources of information, but as essential actors in understanding territorial realities and developing appropriate responses.

Faced with an illicit economy that cuts across borders, supply chains and territories, responses must likewise be coordinated, preventive and cross-border in nature. The aim is for the report’s findings and standards to serve as practical tools for dialogue, the promotion of rights and the adoption of measures that place the protection of human rights and forests, as well as the right of Indigenous Peoples to determine the present and future of their territories, at the centre of the response.

The views expressed in this article are personal and do not necessarily reflect the position of REDESCA, the IACHR or the Organization of American States (OAS).

The post Gold, Territories and Rights: Illegal Mining in the Amazon and the Guiana Shield appeared first on Debates Indígenas.

The two basins are connected by the Casiquiare, a natural channel that branches off from the Orinoco toward the southwest and merges with the Amazon via the Rio Negro. This makes the confluence a unique hydrological phenomenon, linking two of the world’s largest river systems. But their connection runs even deeper. The area between the northern bank of the Amazon and the southern bank of the Orinoco contains the highest biodiversity per square meter on the planet. And when we talk about biodiversity, we also mean human diversity, as this region has been home to numerous Indigenous Peoples for millennia.

This vast strip of land that covers approximately 2.65 million square kilometers stretches across Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana. Roughly 300 Indigenous Peoples live within it, each with their distinct customs, governance systems, social structures, roles, and languages. If we were to recognize each of these peoples as a Nation with its own legal standing, we would be talking about nearly twice the number of nations currently represented in the United Nations system.

The Gold Boom: Record Prices

This biotic wealth, beyond its inherent value, is of incalculable importance for life on Earth. It regulates climates and rainfall, acts as the planet’s primary oxygen and water-producing engine, and serves as a reservoir for harmful greenhouse gases. Without it, much of South America would be a desert, and the harmful gases stored beneath its surface could potentially accelerate climate change in an irreversible manner. However, the region’s wealth extends far beyond thi. Beneath its green canopy lie vast reserves of precious and strategic metals, from gold to coltan still not fully quantified. These resources have triggered a “gold rush” of both legal and illegal mining that threatens the region’s existence.

The gold trade is perhaps the most alarming issue—and undoubtedly the most well-known. While not a new phenomenon, the convergence of multiple factors has intensified it over the past decade. One of its key drivers was the aftermath of the 2008 global financial crisis, which spurred a surge in gold demand as major investors sought a safe haven amid instability and recession. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic had a similar effect.

The situation is unlikely to improve in the coming years. In fact, it may worsen. At the beginning of the century, the price of an ounce of gold on global markets hovered around $270 USD. By 2008, it had climbed to $600 USD. By the end of 2024, it surpassed $2,600 USD, and projections suggest it could reach $7,000 USD by 2030. This surge has fueled increasing pressure on the Amazon as a whole, and on Venezuela’s Amazon region in particular. The country’s deep economic crisis has further driven many people into the Amazon in search of new sources of income.

According to estimates based on satellite imagery and field research done by the organization Wataniba, the land area directly affected by gold mining has expanded dramatically since 2016. By 2019, it had already reached 33,900 hectares, and by 2021, it had grown to 133,700 hectares, representing a 294% increase. The worsening of Venezuela’s crisis, exacerbated by the effects of the global pandemic, has played a key role in the expansion.

The environmental and human consequences have been swift and severe. Mining has contaminated water sources, soil, and crops, leading to food insecurity and the resurgence of diseases such as malaria—whose spread is linked to deforestation and soil erosion. Additionally, Indigenous Peoples face violence from armed groups who see them as obstacles to their predatory operations. More recently, these groups have intensified efforts to recruit Indigenous youth, posing deep social and cultural challenges.

Building Networks to Combat Gold Mining

As predatory activities intensify, it is equally crucial to highlight the organizational efforts that Indigenous Peoples have developed to defend their territories, rights, and ways of life. In this context, the work being done in collaboration with the Ye’kwana and Uwottüja peoples—both at the forefront of the fight against extractive industries—is particularly significant.

For the Ye’kwana, Wataniba’s monitoring efforts have identified over 70 active illegal mining sites within territory they share with the Sanema, located in the Manapiare and Alto Orinoco municipalities in Amazonas state. Meanwhile, the Uwottüja territory has become the epicenter of highly aggressive extractive activities, resulting in the persecution and even contract killings of Indigenous leaders and territorial defenders.

At the end of 2024 we presented the Sacred Sites Maps  in collaboration with the Indigenous Organization of the Uwottüja People of Sipapo (OIPUS), the Indigenous Organization Ye’kwana of Ventuari (KUYUNU), and with the support of the Regional Organization of Indigenous Peoples of Amazonas (ORPIA). These maps stand out as essential tools for intercultural dialogue in the ongoing struggle for the rights and the defense of their territories. Alongside these maps, we also introduced the Free, Prior, and Informed Consultation Protocols for both the Ye’kwana and Uwottüja peoples.

In a similar mannaer, we collaborated at Wataniba with the Horonami organization that represents the Yanomami people in southern Venezuela—one of the most recently contacted Indigenous groups that has been severely affected by illegal mining, displacement, various forms of violence, and even massacres. Additionally, within the framework of the Amazon Network for Georeferenced Socio-Environmental Information (RAISG), we produced reliable data to support the creation of public policies aimed at protecting the Amazon biome, including the Indigenous Peoples who inhabit it.

A key outcome of this work has been our ability to demonstrate that the convergence and complementarity between Protected Natural Areas (PNAs) and Indigenous Territories (ITs) represent the most effective strategy for conserving the Amazon biome and its Indigenous populations.

Protected Natural Areas + Indigenous Territories = Greater Biodiversity

Two decades of work have convinced us that fostering and strengthening the synergy between Protected Natural Areas (PNAs) and Indigenous Territories (ITs) is the most effective strategy for conserving the Venezuelan Amazon region and combating climate change. In the Amazon, home to the world’s largest and most biodiverse tropical forests, it has been demonstrated that ecosystems are better preserved where Indigenous territories overlap with natural protection areas. These territories capture more water and store higher levels of forest carbon that prevent the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, thereby helping to slow the acceleration of climate change.

One way to achieve this would be by legally recognizing Indigenous territories, for example, by demarcating them. This would provide a streamlined process for governments to comply with and enforce biodiversity agreements, climate change accords, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and ensure food, water, and energy security for their populations.

In the case of Venezuela, we propose expanding this strategy by safeguarding the Indigenous territories of the Yanomami and Ye’kwana in the Upper Orinoco, as well as the Middle and Upper Ventuari, and the Uwottüja in Sipapo (Autana municipality). These territories overlap with several national parks, natural monuments, tepuis, and the Upper Orinoco-Casiquiare Biosphere Reserve. These regions are home to Indigenous Peoples living in voluntary isolation or under initial contact, who urgently need the intervention of various governmental bodies.

In conclusion, the issue of illegal mining within Indigenous territories in the Venezuelan Amazon is complex and, in some cases, severe. Beyond highlighting and denouncing this situation, it is crucial to recognize that the fight these Peoples are waging against mining is not just about protecting their territories and way of life, but also safeguarding the integrity of the world’s largest, most biodiverse, and most vital tropical forest.

The post Gold or Life: The Struggle of Venezuelan Indigenous Peoples Against Illegal Mining appeared first on Debates Indígenas.

According to oral sources preserved to this day, while the increased gold tax imposed by the governor of Macas pushed the ancestors to their limit, the root cause of the social uprising that ended foreign presence in Awajún territory was the introduction of new diseases, sexual violence, and the inhumane treatment inflicted upon the native population.

The recent history of gold mining in the high Amazon has deep, centuries-old roots, and its current phase represents the intensification of the extractivist project, driven primarily by accumulation-driven ambition. Gold mining poses a direct threat to the environment and, above all, to Indigenous Peoples and their systems of territorial control, leading to the destruction of their socio-economic structures and cultural identities. The recurring assaults on Indigenous Peoples and the environment continue with the same intensity, albeit under different forms, much like the rubber boom, which claimed thousands of lives.

Mining concessions in the Amazon and illegal gold exploitation

According to data from the Ministry of Energy and Mines, gold production from January to August 2024 reached 69.1 million fine grams, reflecting a 10.5% increase compared to the same period in 2023 in which 62.5 million fine grams were produced. Yanacocha S.R.L. is the country’s leading producer. This figure does not account for illegal gold production.

The Peruvian Institute of Economics (IPE) estimates that illegal gold exports reached approximately $6.84 billion dollars in 2024, a 41 percent increase from 2023. It also reports that Peru exports 44 percent of all illegal gold in South America.

Between 2020 and 2024, the Geological, Mining, and Metallurgical Institute (INGEMMET) granted 510 mining concessions in the departments of Amazonas, Loreto, San Martín, and Ucayali. Of this total, 17 concessions were granted, in the past year, in the department of Loreto alone. Meanwhile, the company Sociedad Minera Vicus Exploraciones, acquired by the Canadian company Palamina Corp in early 2024, holds 92 records in San Martín and Ucayali. Additionally, Hannan Metals Perú, also Canadian-owned, holds 61 concessions in San Martín.

In the Awajún territory, located between the Marañón and Cenepa rivers, there are 19 mining concession requests that cover a total of 11,100 hectares. Of these, 11 have already been granted, representing 5,900 hectares of land. These concessions affect the riverbanks and shorelines.

The camouflage of foreign capital

Although mining concessions are prohibited along riverbanks, headwaters, lagoons, and in the buffer zones of Protected Natural Areas in Peru, reality contradicts the regulation. A prominent example of the discrepancy is in the Cordillera del Cóndor. In 2004, the government, through the National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA), reached an agreement with the Awajún people to create the Ichinkat Muja National Park, as part of a consultation process. However, the consultation was ignored by the State, and mining activities were prioritized: 65,000 hectares were cut from the park’s initial 153,000-hectare area.

The national park was created in 2007 through Supreme Decree 023-2007-AG, and covered a total area of 88,477 hectares. In the excluded area, 111 mining concessions were granted without considering the opinion of scientists who had classified the biodiversity of the region as a high priority for conservation. Additionally, they disregarded the fact that the areas requested for concession were also headwaters.

Article 71 of the Political Constitution of Peru establishes that foreigners are prohibited from acquiring or owning, under any title, mines, lands, forests, or water within 50 kilometers of the borders. However, foreign interests, using camouflage mechanisms, create national companies to acquire concessions that appear domestic. This is the case with Dorato Perú, whose parent company is the Canadian company Dorato Resources, an ally of Afrodita.

Regardless of whether these companies exploit gold in their acquired concessions or not, the key issue is whether the constitutional mandate, which prohibits foreigners from engaging in any mining activity, directly or indirectly, within fifty kilometers of the border, is being respected.

In troubled waters, fishermen profit

The policy of economic promotion for national development is both inadequate and criminal. On one hand, it is inadequate because our representatives are unwilling to support the formal economy. Instead, they prioritize corruption within the context of illegality.

Additionally, it is criminal because informal mining practice have reached such extremes that they harms both biodiversity and the environmental health of local populations. The state has rewarded those who destroy headwaters, riverbanks, and biodiversity by giving them deadlines to comply with the law through the Comprehensive Mining Formalization Registry (REINFO).

The REINFO program came into effect in June 2017 and under this law, 90,265 registrations were submitted. However, only 2,108 of these successfully completed the formalization process. The rest continued to operate illegally with the approval of the Congress of the Republic, which granted multiple extensions. Recently, Law 32213 was enacted, which through its third Supplementary Provision, extendeds the validity of REINFO until June 30, 2025, with the possibility of further extensions.

Mining crisis in the Awajún territory

Currently, the Awajún people face several critical threats within four highly concerning geographical hotspots. The first is Tambo, located in the Cordillera del Cóndor, where illegal gold mining is destroying the headwaters that supply the Comaina and Cenepa rivers, each tributaries of the Marañón River. This hotspot affects the lives and health of over 12,000 Awajún inhabitants, along with having significant environmental and biodiversity impacts in the area.

In addition, the population along the Cenepa River is facing alluvial gold extraction, with more than 70 dredges operated by informal agents, mostly from Madre de Dios. Contaminated with mercury, the Cenepa River poses a risk to the population that depends on its water and hydrobiological resources. The third critical area is the Santiago River, which suffers the direct impacts of over 30 dredges. The fourth hotspot is Saramiriza, where illegal alluvial gold mining is also taking place, with around 15 dredges present.

The Awajún Autonomous Territorial Government (GTAA), in coordination with the community and environmental police, has carried out a series of community prohibiting actions in Santiago, Cenepa, and Saramiriza. Thanks to coordinated efforts, the National Police and the Armed Forces, following orders issued by the Environmental Prosecutor’s Office, have managed to destroy 20 dredges in Awajún territory over the past 15 months. Despite these efforts, the foundations supporting the presence of illegal mining in these critical areas have not been dismantled.

Through the GTAA, the Awajún people aim to implement alternative methods of territorial control and surveillance. Over the past 18 months, they have promoted the creation of community police forces and organized training programs to support the development of their roles with the assistance of the National Police of Peru.

In conclusion

Illegal mining operates in complicity with state authorities, including the Congress of the Republic, which enables thousands of environmental criminals to destroy the Amazon by legitimizing their actions. In this way, the informal mining sector is strengthened, turning ongoing extensions for formalization into a recurring modus operandi.

The rise in gold prices, at the international level, is the main driver of the proliferation of mining across nearly the entire Peruvian Amazon. This situation is worsened by the state’s passive approach and the insufficient budget allocated for patrols. Moreover, one of the key factors contributing to the expansion of illegal gold mining is corruption within the authorities responsible for monitoring these activities.

In this context, it is crucial to strengthen the internal territorial control system by establishing key surveillance posts and conducting patrols at critical points. The entry routes for logistics and machinery used in illegal gold extraction from rivers must be blocked. Achieving this requires sufficient enough resources to ensure continuous monitoring.

The GTAA is promoting policies aimed at combating illegal mining with the goal of eradicating this scourge from its territory. To achieve this, it is essential to foster alliances that influence at both national and international levels, ensuring that gold-importing countries are aware of the products’ origin. In this regard, identifying the gold’s route from its source through an effective traceability processes is urgent.

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