Although much of the Ayoreo people have already been settled in missions and confined to small territorial enclaves, various groups have maintained their independence and autonomy from the colonising world thanks to the vastness of the forests. The silvícolas (“forest dwellers”), the “uncontacted”, the “isolated”, the “naked”, the pyta jovái, or simply the “wild Moros”, had not yet been affected by the transformations that would intensify in the decades to come. However, the conditions that enabled these groups to remain outside the dominant global system have been steadily eroded over the past twenty-five years.

Beyond protected wilderness areas, the Chaco has undergone rapid transformation under pressure from agribusiness, the hydrocarbon industry, mining and, more recently, the expansion of modern transport infrastructure. In 2000, the northern Chaco still retained 87 per cent of its native forests, savannahs and grasslands. Today, only 52 per cent remains: 42 per cent in the form of highly fragmented forests, much of which have largely lost their ecological function, and just 10 per cent within protected wilderness areas as more extensive forest remnants. It is no exaggeration to say that the northern Paraguayan Chaco is now little more than a scattered mosaic of what, only twenty-five years ago, constituted an invaluable natural heritage.

The Ayoreo People and the Last Transformation

Like other peoples of the Chaco, the Ayoreo understand the passage of time through profound transformations that are preserved in oral histories, ancestral memory and collective memory. What is taking place today may well be understood as “the last transformation”: a process through which the known world collapses and a new one emerges, becoming the point of departure from which the stories of the present begin to be told. Each transformation has entailed both the collapse of an existing world and the emergence of a new way of life. The memory of these catastrophic events strengthens the Ayoreo people’s capacity to adapt to new realities, overcome the trauma of upheaval and continue to exist as a people, transcending the pain and terror experienced by individuals during each transformation.

By tracking the movements of groups living in voluntary isolation, we can observe an ongoing process of adaptation to the changes affecting the forest and its conversion into vast cattle pastures. This does not necessarily imply acceptance of the new reality. Rather, it reflects forms of resistance and adjustment in the ways life and territory are lived and understood, while the territory itself has not yet lost its meaning as a being with whom humans interact. This latest transformation is still unfolding and the risk that it may become a final and irreversible stage is increasingly imminent.

Pressure from neighbouring landowners and new occupants is constant, forcing communities to sell their natural assets—converted into economic resources—or lease portions of their territories in order to survive.

Pressure from neighbouring landowners and new occupants is constant, forcing communities to sell their natural assets or lease portions of their territories in order to survive.

What’s more, a sequential analysis of the Land Use Plans submitted by landowners and companies to obtain environmental licences for their projects indicates that, if implemented, they will trigger an accelerated process of fragmentation over the next five years, far more severe than anything witnessed to date. The outlook towards 2030 is therefore deeply concerning for the individuals and groups of the Ayoreo people who continue to live apart from modern society. Nor does it offer much hope for those communities confined to small tracts of land owned either by themselves or by the Paraguayan Indigenous Institute (INDI).

Pressure from neighbouring landowners and new occupants is constant, forcing communities to sell their natural assets—converted into economic resources—or lease portions of their territories in order to survive. Far from providing a solution, this strategy often becomes a catalyst for internal conflict, social fragmentation and violence. The process of adapting to the world that has confined them has not yet fundamentally transformed their internal political organisation, which remains rooted in the family as the basic unit of survival and in forms of leadership shaped by the ability to engage with and navigate the Western world.

The Deepening of Extractivism

Over the past eight years, these transformations have intensified markedly as national extractivist policies have deepened and efforts have increased to identify new resources for export, attract investment and reposition Paraguay within the global economy. Successive governments—and particularly the administration of President Santiago Peña—have promoted an ambiguous agenda: while reinforcing international commitments to environmental protection and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, they have simultaneously expanded the exploration of mineral and hydrocarbon resources and sought to establish Paraguay among the world’s leading exporters of grain and beef.

These developments have profound consequences for the daily lives of both settled Ayoreo communities and groups living in voluntary isolation. As extractive activities continue to advance, they are left with ever fewer opportunities to shape their own future and define their own path in the face of this latest transformation.

Yet even today, vast areas of the Paraguayan Chaco remain under concession, sustained by the enduring promise of hydrocarbons in a world that is increasingly seeking to move beyond fossil fuels and transform its energy systems.

Yet even today, vast areas of the Paraguayan Chaco remain under concession, sustained by the enduring promise of hydrocarbons in a world that is increasingly seeking to move beyond fossil fuels and transform its energy systems.

A dozen rare earth and lithium exploration projects have spread across the Chaco, with little regard for the territorial rights of Indigenous Peoples and even less for the groups that continue to live in voluntary isolation. Approved by regulatory authorities, these projects are being carried out by four major companies belonging to the same corporate group, which dominates the exploration and extraction of rare minerals across the lowlands of the Americas. This wave of extractive activity also threatens the integrity of one of the region’s most fragile protected areas: Médanos del Chaco National Park.

Hydrocarbons have long served as a powerful driving development myth in the Paraguayan Chaco. Following Paraguay’s victory in the Chaco War in the 1930s—a conflict that claimed more than 90,000 lives—successive concessions were granted to foreign companies for exploration projects that ultimately proved unsuccessful. At best, these efforts led to the discovery of oil and gas reserves in quantities too small to justify the investments required for their extraction and transport. Yet even today, vast areas of the Paraguayan Chaco remain under concession, sustained by the enduring promise of hydrocarbons in a world that is increasingly seeking to move beyond fossil fuels and transform its energy systems.

The Road-Building Boom

The coup de grâce for the world of the Ayoreo groups living in voluntary isolation—and for the collapse of a millennia-old cultural landscape shaped by the many Indigenous Peoples of the Chaco, of whom these Ayoreo groups are the last to remain free and in resistance—is the current boom in road construction and transport infrastructure. The Capricorn Bioceanic Corridor is now being rapidly developed across the Paraguayan Chaco from east to west, with the aim of linking the major production centres of Mato Grosso do Sul and São Paulo to ports on the Pacific coast of Chile, facilitating trade with Asian markets.

This corridor directly affects the southern portion of Ayoreo territory and indirectly impacts the territory as a whole. From this main transport axis, a network of transversal roads has already been planned to connect agricultural and livestock production areas throughout the northern Chaco to the Pacific route. At the same time, road projects planned in Bolivia and western Brazil seek to connect the Brazilian state of Rondônia to the Pacific coast. These routes would run from north to south through some of the last remaining intangible territories set aside by the Charagua Indigenous Government of the Guaraní People in the Bolivian Chaco for Ayoreo groups living in voluntary isolation, beyond the boundaries of protected areas.

After more than three decades of advances in the recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ rights, Paraguay still has not formally recognised the presence of groups living in voluntary isolation within its territory who must be protected

After more than three decades of advances in the recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ rights, Paraguay still has not formally recognised the presence of groups living in voluntary isolation.

This road-building boom is not merely about more paved roads and increased vehicle traffic; it is also transforming the production model, with a strong trend in the northern Chaco towards a shift from extensive cattle ranching to intensive agriculture. For groups living in voluntary isolation, the consequences are drastic: water sources contaminated by agrochemicals, a decline in wildlife populations (a fundamental source of protein for the Ayoreo people), and air pollution in the remaining forest areas (the fragments that remain as refuges for life).

At the same time, these transformations are also reflected in the sphere of rights. After more than three decades of advances in the recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ rights, Paraguay still has not formally recognised the presence of groups living in voluntary isolation within its territory who must be protected and for whom conditions must be guaranteed so that they can continue living in accordance with their own self-determination. Nor has there been any improvement in the implementation of legislation relating to the rights of Indigenous Peoples who have already been colonised. The right to land and to access the territories necessary for sustaining their lives remains subordinated to the property rights of settlers and, increasingly, of agro-export companies that shape political priorities and decision-making in the northern Paraguayan Chaco.

The Ayoreo Worldview and the Ideologisation of Progress

Finally, it is worth noting that this great transformation, which is set to intensify in the coming years, is driven by the discourse of economic growth and so-called “progress”, which questions and ridicules the belief systems of the peoples of the Chaco and, especially, of the groups that continue to live in voluntary isolation. According to this belief system, everything in the world—living and non-living alike—is a person and must be treated with respect. For this reason, relationships and dialogue must be established in order to access the benefits that these beings may provide to human beings and to make use of them within a framework of respect, harmony and moderation.

In contrast to the accumulation that underpins an individualistic and self-interested liberal logic, this worldview promotes the principle of sharing in order to maintain a just and balanced social order. This ideologisation of “progress” fuels the voracious drive of the West to consume without restraint everything that exists on Earth and mocks Indigenous beliefs through the discourse of economic growth and the (false) needs created by the market. On the contrary, this belief system may offer humanity a way to avoid the destruction of the world—that is, the final stage of this last transformation.

Meanwhile, a quarter of a century into the third millennium, small groups of the Ayoreo people continue to resist and avoid contact with the agents of change that are pushing their world towards collapse and ruin. This steadfast resistance, shared by all groups living in voluntary isolation, emerges as the only hope to which they cling so that the forest does not close in and fall silent, and so that this transformation does not become definitive and final.

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The language spoken by this group is partially understood by the Yine people from nearby communities, with whom they have occasionally interacted from a distance. They are  separated by the river, and only interact for short periods of time. These encounters often carry significant tension due to the unpredictability and the potential for violence. In such interactions, the Mashco Piro typically request bananas and other useful items. However, there have also been instances where they have entered community farms and taken food products.

The elder members of the Yine communities have learned how to manage this tension, which is why they have been selected by the Native Federation of the Madre de Dios River and its Tributaries (FENAMAD) as well as the Ministry of Culture to serve as  agents of protection for the Madre de Dios Territorial Reserve, which was established to safeguard isolated peoples. The careful management of the seasonal presence of isolated groups near some communities contrasts sharply with the dangers they face in the eastern part of their territory, where the Peruvian government has granted logging concessions, prioritizing economic interests over the protection of their lives.

A long delay in expanding the reserve

In 2002, amid intense social unrest and violence fueled by logging companies, an indigenous reserve was created to protect the isolated peoples of northern Madre de Dios. While this was a significant victory for indigenous organizations, the reserve only encompassed 34% of the area identified as the territory of these peoples. More than 50% of the area was designated part of the Alto Purús Reserved Zone (now a national park) while the remainder, due to pressure from businesses and authorities, was turned into permanent forest production zones for logging.

As a result, nearly 300,000 hectares of forest within Mashco Piro territories began to experience intense, officially sanctioned logging activity, different from previous years. Consequent violent encounters between loggers and isolated indigenous groups have persisted. The inaction and silence of judicial authorities in response to formal complaints filed by FENAMAD, regarding assaults on isolated indigenous peoples have led to a request for precautionary measures before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, a request which was granted in 2007.

Studies coordinated by the Ministry of Culture reaffirmed the presence of isolated populations in the area classified as Permanent Forest Production Zones.

As of July 2024, the reserve has not yet been officially categorized or expanded and some logging companies continue to operate in this part of the territory inhabited by isolated peoples.

In 2012, the process initiated a reclassification of the Territorial Reserve as an Indigenous Reserve, in accordance with Law No. 28736 on Isolated and Initial Contact Peoples. This law was enacted in 2006. Studies coordinated by the Ministry of Culture reaffirmed the presence of isolated populations in the area classified as Permanent Forest Production Zones, just as the FENAMAD technical team had reported a decade earlier.

Subsequently, an expansion of the reserve to the east was recommended and approved in 2016 by the Multisectoral Commission responsible for the reserve’s categorization. As part of this process, a working group was formed to produce a report on the issue of overlapping forest concessions within the proposed expansion area within four months. As of July 2024, the reserve has not yet been officially categorized or expanded and some logging companies continue to operate in this part of the territory inhabited by isolated peoples.

The impact of logging activity

The presence of logging operators, their movements through the forest, the establishment of camps, waste production, the transit of vehicles and heavy machinery, the noise from machinery, as well as hunting, fishing, and gathering for daily sustenance, all have serious implications for isolated peoples. Additionally, given their lack of immune defenses and resulting high vulnerability, the presence of outsiders in their territory increases the risk of the transmisión of disease.

Environmental contamination becomes a source of infection, leading to the spread of parasitic diseases, anemia, and acute diarrhea—one of the leading causes of death among isolated and initial-contact-populations. The pressure on forest animals and fish to feed hundreds of logging workers reduces resources and creates competition with the isolated groups for whom these are the sole sources of sustenance. Moreover, the noise from logging activities scares away animals, further complicating subsistence practices.

The National Indian Foundation (FUNAI) has raised concerns about the increasing Mashco Piro population (which extends to the Brazilian side of the border) and its risky approach toward, and hostility against indigenous villages.

The National Indian Foundation (FUNAI) has raised concerns about the increasing Mashco Piro population (which extends to the Brazilian side of the border).

Simultaneously, logging activities drive the construction of roads for transporting personnel, equipment, and extracted timber. Secondary roads within logging concession areas located between the Acre and Tahuamanu rivers have a significant impact on the territories of isolated peoples. The severe disruption of soil, water, flora, and fauna fragments the territory, shrinking hunting and gathering areas. Consequently, road construction severely undermines food sources and means of subsistence, which in turn threatens the physical, territorial, and socio-cultural integrity of these groups.

In Brazil, the National Indian Foundation (FUNAI) has raised concerns about the increasing Mashco Piro population (which extends to the Brazilian side of the border) and its risky approach toward, and hostility against indigenous villages. Given the isolated peoples’ need to secure subsistence sources, it is highly likely that they are seeking to compensate for the loss of vital spaces caused by logging. This situation is extremely serious and often leads to friction both within the isolated groups themselves and with loggers and neighboring indigenous communities.

The importance of protecting territorial corridors

The Madre de Dios Territorial Reserve is part of a vast expanse of continuous territories inhabited by various isolated and initial contact peoples, known as the Pano, Arawak, and Other Territorial Corridor. This corridor stretches north, south, east, and west, crossing the border into Brazil and encompassing the forests of Acre along the frontier. Further north, separated by the Amonya River, lies a second territorial corridor for isolated and initial contact peoples, known as Yavarí-Tapiche. Spanning over 25 million hectares of continuous forests, these two corridors represent the largest area in the world inhabited by isolated and initial contact peoples.

The protection of these territorial corridors is being driven by at least 50 indigenous organizations on both sides of the Peru-Brazil border. Leading this movement are the Interethnic Association for the Development of the Peruvian Rainforest (Aidesep), the Regional Organization of Indigenous Peoples of the East (Orpio), and the Coordination of Indigenous Peoples of the Brazilian Amazon (Coiab). In many cases, indigenous councils made up of local and regional organizations have been established  to lead efforts in formulating strategies for the protection of these territories.

The protection of these corridors requires a comprehensive approach to isolated and initial contact peoples, considering their territoriality beyond legal categories established by States.

The protection of these corridors requires a comprehensive approach to isolated and initial contact peoples, considering their territoriality beyond legal categories established by States.

The protection of these corridors requires a comprehensive approach to isolated and initial contact peoples, considering their territoriality beyond legal categories established by States. The initiative advocates for the implementation of protective policies and mechanisms for these peoples and their territories, coordinating across various government sectors and levels. Effective coordination with indigenous organizations within the reserves and their inhabited territories is essential. Given their cross-border mobility, policies with a binational perspective are also proposed.

Additionally, the initiative promotes the adoption of communal agreements to respect the ways of life and subsistence areas of isolated peoples and aims to enhance the socio-territorial governance of indigenous communities and other surrounding populations. These approaches are based on principles of respect for life, territory, self-determination, and traditional ways of living. They also include preventive measures against the impacts of sustained contact and sedentarization on their health and means of subsistence.

The protection of these corridors requires a comprehensive approach to isolated and initial contact peoples, considering their territoriality beyond legal categories established by States. The initiative advocates for the implementation of protective policies and mechanisms for these peoples and their territories, coordinating across various government sectors and levels. Effective coordination with indigenous organizations within the reserves and their inhabited territories is essential. Given their cross-border mobility, policies with a binational perspective are also proposed.

Additionally, the initiative promotes the adoption of communal agreements to respect the ways of life and subsistence areas of isolated peoples and aims to enhance the socio-territorial governance of indigenous communities and other surrounding populations. These approaches are based on principles of respect for life, territory, self-determination, and traditional ways of living. They also include preventive measures against the impacts of sustained contact and sedentarization on their health and means of subsistence.

In conclusion

Over time, the physical, socio-cultural and territorial integrity of the Mashco Piro has been severely affected by the development of extractive activities such as rubber tapping, hydrocarbon extraction, and recently, logging. These economic activities, driven by the dominant economic model, have led to the invasion of their territories, persecution, murder, slavery, the spread of epidemics, and the degradation of their sources of livelihood. The lack of legal security and territorial protection highlights the disregard for the rights of isolated peoples.

The Mashco Piro’s existence, their reliance on hunting and gathering resources from forests and rivers are closely tied to a healthy environment. Beyond its importance for the survival and continuity of isolated peoples, the forests of Madre de Dios contain crucial headwaters for the Amazon basin. These ecosystems, rich in diverse flora and fauna, have led to the establishment of prominent protected natural areas, including Alto Purús, Manu, and Sierra del Divisor National Parks.

In response to threats to the Mashco Piro and other isolated peoples posed by extractive economies, indigenous organizations have initiated efforts to safeguard their rights. They have come together to advocate for the protection of territorial corridors (or continuous territories) for isolated and initial contact peoples, extending beyond legal constraints and transcending international borders.

Note from the Editor: The article has deliberately avoided mentioning the specific locations inhabited and traversed by the Mashco Piro due to the potential risk to their safety. This precaution is taken to prevent individuals with harmful intentions from pinpointing their exact whereabouts, which could jeopardize their protection.

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